title: Urban/rural source apportionment and intraurban source-based spatial analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) and associated toxicity

abstract: This research identified and quantified source types contributing to ambient PAH and associated toxicity at the urban and intraurban scales, reflecting awareness of the variability in exposure toxicity and in source toxicity for PM-associated toxic pollutants. Source apportionment analysed vapour+particle PAH time-series data (2001-2010) from central site monitoring stations at urban (Hamilton, Toronto) and rural background (Egbert) sites in Southern Ontario, Canada. Receptor modeling by Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) identified four source types: volatilized PAH/long-range transported coal combustion, vehicle traffic exhaust, space heating, biomass combustion. At Hamilton, local industry emissions were also identified, associated with iron/steel manufacturing. Apportionment of PAH toxicity using Benzo(a)Pyrene-toxicity equivalency factors identified traffic exhaust and local industry as ‘more toxic’ source types, contributing comparably little to ambient PAH yet disproportionately to PAH-associated toxicity. Intraurban investigation of PAH sources sampled vapour+particle PAH and PM2.5 from a dense network of >30 Hamilton sites over a two-week period in June-July and December 2009. Ambient PAH exhibited substantially greater spatial variability than PM2.5 and ‘hot spots’ of elevated pollutant levels were observed near/downwind of the business district and harbour-front. A combined PMF-Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) receptor modeling approach applied factors derived from the PMF model of Hamilton central site time-series data as ‘local source profiles’ in a CMB model of spatial field sampling data, explaining spatial variability observed for PAH and PAH toxicity in terms of sources. Contributions by space heating, volatilized PAH/transported coal combustion, wood combustion showed low intraurban variability, while vehicle traffic exhaust showed moderate variability, and local industry emissions contributed significantly only near the industrial harbour-front. Vehicle traffic exhaust contributed majority of PAH toxicity at all sites, even where ambient PAH concentrations were comparably low, and local industry emissions contributed significantly only near the industrial zone, explaining ‘toxicity hot spots’ as high contributions of local industry in addition to vehicle traffic. Findings recommend that efforts to reduce PAH exposures prioritize ‘more toxic’ source types such as vehicle traffic and local industry. PMF-CMB receptor modeling using local time-series PAH data to interpret intraurban variability in ambient PAH demonstrated a viable analysis method for other urban locations.


title: Shear behvaiour of oil sand fine tailings in simple shear and triaxial devices

abstract: Oil Sand Fine Tailings are difficult to manage due to their poor consolidation characteristics. Once reaching about 35% solids content, they do not appreciably consolidate any further due to low hydraulic conductivity generated by the high dispersion of clay particles. Tailings at 35% solids do not possess any substantial strength and cannot be reclaimed. Regulations are therefore recently implemented that require oil sand operators to improve shear strength of deposited tailings to be at least 5kPa within a year after deposition. Many technologies have and currently being explored that use a polymer to drive clay particle flocculation and improve dewatering. However, most of the tracking of strength behaviour of polymer amended fine tailings has been using field vane or cone penetration testing. This thesis attempts to analyze strength behaviour by using element tests (simple shear and triaxial), the first such attempt in the public domain to the author’s knowledge.


title: Suggestions for Introducing Creative Entrepreneurship Education into China’s Design Education

abstract: In China, creative industries are evolving, but creative entrepreneurship education is undeveloped. In order to propose an approach for introducing creative entrepreneurship education into design education in China, this study utilized a mixed method to investigate designers’ entrepreneurial aspirations, motivations, and intentions as well as the factors that drive designers to develop their entrepreneurial potential. It also provides suggestions for developing creative entrepreneurial programs for design graduates. Interview and survey data were collected from Chinese designers and analyzed through a descriptive and a statistical procedure. The analyses suggested that Chinese designers’ entrepreneurial intentions are positive but not strong enough to motivate them to start their business. The statistical analysis uncovered eight main motivational factors and clustered five types of creative designers. Three of the creative clusters would benefit from creative entrepreneurship education. Moreover, the analyses suggest creative entrepreneurial programs should be established by design schools at regular public universities.


title: Invisible Bodies: Revealing the Unseen Contributions of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities

abstract: This doctoral thesis explores the unpaid labour of persons with intellectual disabilities in rehabilitation and training sites, the home, and the community in order to confront problematic policies and legislation that result in exclusion and exploitation. Grounded in theories of historical materialism, political economies of disability, theories of care, inclusion and exclusion and with attention to intersectionality, this thesis focuses on how these labour experiences are shaped by a legacy of developmental services that are reliant on the economic exploitation and exclusion of these bodies. A qualitative research project, rooted in participatory research and institutional ethnography, and drawing from the labour experiences of persons with disabilities, advocates, and stakeholders, investigates the labour experiences of persons with intellectual disabilities within their broader socio-economic and policy contexts. This thesis makes two key arguments. First, I argue that an examination of this unpaid labour is necessary to make visible the capacities and contributions of many adults with intellectual disabilities and to lay the foundation for funding and policy solutions that promote stronger versions of inclusion that are not reliant on labour market participation or economic norms. Second, I argue that programs and policies that value interdependence and view inclusion as a process separate from the labour market have the potential to support more varied capacities and reshape the social construction of intellectual disability in powerful ways. Finally, this thesis challenges current conceptualizations of caring relationships that have shaped developmental policy for persons with intellectual disabilities; I argue that these conceptualizations are rooted in dominant social constructions of intellectual disability that understand these bodies as dependent and idle. The thesis highlights the urgent need to address existing legislation and policy practices that systemically render these contributions invisible and encourage the exploitation and marginalization of individuals with intellectual disabilities. Its findings lead to calls for policy interventions that acknowledge the unpaid contributions of people with intellectual disabilities, to reimagine how inclusion is conceptualized and promoted, and support the development of concrete measures that recognize and make visible these capacities.


title: A New Power System Stabilizer Designed for Grid-Connected Doubly Fed Induction Generator-Based Wind Generation System

abstract: The objective of this thesis is to address the stability of a DFIG based wind generation system and improve the system’s performance by employing a power system stabilizer. The PSS signals are applied to the inner current control loops of Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) control scheme (voltage oriented control). The performance characteristics of PSS controllers based on the stator voltage and the network frequency, when the system is subjected to grid faults, are investigated. The system’s performance is demonstrated by the small signal stability analysis and time domain analysis. In the first step, analysis is carried out without any PSS and the need for PSS is addressed. In the next step, the system performance improvement witnessed with the use of PSS, is discussed. It is observed that the network damping and the system’s dynamic stability are improved when employing the designed PSS’s for DFIG based wind energy conversion system.


title: Nanotechnology for Single Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell Applications

abstract: Solar cells are receiving a lot of attention due to the ongoing climate debate and attempts to implement more green energy sources to reduce the CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. Single crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells with better stability over a long time period compared to other silicon based solar cells have taken a main position in the solar cell market. As new solar cell technology continually develops, the disadvantage of the relatively high cost of electricity generated related to low cell efficiency becomes one of top issues with c-Si solar cells. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the effectiveness of nanotechnologies, in particular plasmonic metal nanoparticles (MNPs), black silicon (b-Si) nanostructures and horizontally-grown silicon nanowires (SiNWs) structures, for cell efficiency enhancement of c-Si solar cells through numerical simulation and experimental demonstrations.


title: Plane Spanners of Degree Eight

abstract: Given a set of points P, we calculate the Delaunay triangulation of P, labeled DT(P). We describe an algorithm that selects a subset of edges from DT(P) to form the graph D8(P). We then prove that D8(P) has a constant spanning ratio of approximately 4.414 with respect to the complete graph, and a maximum degree of 8.


title: Ukubutha-Towards a New Social Architecture in South African Townships

abstract: This thesis seeks to investigate an underdeveloped urban community on the periphery of a former township in Pretoria, South Africa. The community is situated along the border of Mamelodi, one the oldest and seventh biggest township in the country. The township was created under the Apartheid regime specifically for the alienation of physical race and culture residential divisions. Although vibrant with economic and social activity, thousands of people on the site have limited access to adequate sanitation or water, and have no electricity. Ukubutha is a Zulu term meaning to ‘gather’. The project name describes the intentions of an architectural response to crisis. The role of architecture is to mediate between the social needs of township communities without formal access to water, or sanitation and electricity. Although the South African crisis revolves around water and sanitation, Ukubutha recognizes the interconnectedness of needs and activities that improve standards of living.


title: Microstructure and macroscopic behaviour of polymer amended oil sands mature fine tailings

abstract: After several years following deposition, oil sand fine tailings settle to a solids content of 30 ~ 40% and are subsequently termed mature fine tailings (MFT). Once they have reached this state, MFT do not appreciably dewater, even after several decades. The particle size and dispersed structure of the fines (and possibly residual bitumen), negatively impacts the consolidation behavior of MFT. Several technologies currently being trialed to accelerate dewatering of MFT, such as in-line flocculation, centrifuge, and tank thickening, flocculate the tailings using a polymer. The addition of polymer results in substantial dewatering in the short term (24 hours) after in-line flocculation, and increases dewatering in tank thickening and centrifugation. This is well understood in industry. However, the polymer may also change longer term dewatering behaviour by potentially changing the consolidation characteristics and water–retention characteristics of the tailings. To assess the effect of polymer on all aspects of dewatering behaviour, column experiments simulating deposition of in-line flocculated tailings, were undertaken for different times, different thicknesses, and under different environmental conditions. This allowed for the study to separate initial dewatering from self-weight consolidation, subsequent desiccation, and further consolidation of desiccated tailings when they are buried by fresh deposition. The behaviour was analyzed by tracking fabric changes using mercury intrusion porosimetry and scanning electron microscopy. Differences in dewatering behaviour following initial self-weight consolidation due to differences in polymer dose appear to be minimal. Consolidation behaviour of previously desiccated tailings converges to the same properties by 80 kPa vertical effective stress. Optimizing for dose should therefore be done in terms of self-weight consolidation. It was observed that optimizing for yield stress may yield a higher optimal dose than for dewatering. Key words: consolidation, desiccation, dewatering, hydraulic, microstrcuture, shear strength, suction, tailings, yield stress


title: Crowd Shape as a Visual Feedback Mechanism in Human-Computer Interaction

abstract: In this thesis we explore crowd-computer interactions using a crowd shape generated from participating crowd members, both simulated and non-simulated, in three main shape forms (blobby, precise, and a combination of the two) to explore whether such an interactive form, and which of the three forms, can be both a viable and interesting method of having many people collaboratively interacting with large public displays in public spaces.


title: Analysis of ice types along the northern coast of Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada, and their relationship to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) backscatter

abstract: Ice shelves and other ice features along the northern coast of Ellesmere Island are a complex mixture of ice originating from marine and meteoric sources. This is reflected in the considerable variability in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) backscatter in remotely sensed imagery. This study analyzed the properties of three different ice types across the Milne and Petersen ice shelves and associated them with SAR backscatter. The results indicated that the grain diameter of each ice type was unique in horizontal thin sections and that bubble shape and size were associated with SAR variables. Furthermore, cores extracted from areas originally thought to be glacially-fed were identified as being marine in origin, suggesting that considerable surface ablation has taken place over the past three decades. This research offers the potential to improve our ability to assess long-term changes (past and future) of the ice cover along the northern coast of Ellesmere Island.


title: Exploring for graphite using a new ground-based time-domain electromagnetic system

abstract: With the proliferation of battery-powered technology, such as cell phones, laptops, and electric cars, the need for graphite is expected to increase as it plays a crucial role in batteries and fuel cells. We present the IMAGEM system, a high-resolution ground-based time-domain electromagnetic system, whose high spatial resolution allows it to accurately delineate small deposits, on the order of a few metres thick. We perform forward modelling and inversion using a 1D modelling software program, AarhusInv, and present the results of case studies where the system was used for graphite exploration. The IMAGEM system was able to differentiate multiple distinct anomalies where the classic MaxMin system could only outline one anomaly. The IMAGEM system is still being developed and shows great potential for detecting small near-surface bodies, such as graphite deposits. AarhusInv proves to be an effective program to model the IMAGEM system.


title: Factors Affecting Secure Computer Behaviour

abstract: Understanding users’ individual differences may provide clues to help identify computer users who are prone to act insecurely. We examine factors that impact users’ reported security behaviour with respect to some common computer security issues. We conducted two online surveys with a total of 650 participants to investigate the relationship between self-reported security behaviour and users’ knowledge, motivation, confidence, risk propensity, and sex-typed characteristics. We found that all of these factors had an impact on security behaviour; however, knowledge was the most important. We provide recommendations relating to understanding participants’ individual differences as a way to identify users at risk of behaving in an insecure manner. Further, we suggest that deeper understanding of the relationships between personality characteristics and security behaviour can provide researchers with tools to more comprehensively interpret their data.


title: Maintaining Identity Within Prisons: Resistance and Repercussions Experienced by the Wrongly Imprisoned

abstract: The current study extends the scope of the literature by including the perspectives of individuals who have been wrongly charged and imprisoned, and examining how the wrongly imprisoned negotiate, resist, and maintain their identities within prisons. Through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with six participants who self-identify as being wrongly convicted or charged, it was found that identity can be interpreted as a constant negotiation within the prison environment. Through the mechanisms of resistance, the participants were able to exercise resistance and limit the effects of power from opposing sources, thereby maintaining their identity. Although the participants were able to reverse the direction of power, even within prisons – a site of power inequalities and coercion, the benefits of maintaining identity were often accompanied by immediate and future consequences. This research strengthens the need for appropriate avenues to address prisoners who maintain their innocence and their identity within prisons.


title: Suicide, social media and newsroom taboos: How new media are changing the way suicides are reported.

abstract: Almost 4,000 Canadians kill themselves annually but few suicides merit news coverage because of long-standing newsroom policies and attitudes. These policies are shaped by recommendations from mental health professionals who say the publicity around one suicide can trigger copycat acts. Social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook provide new venues for journalists to learn about suicides and glean personal details of the deceased. A review of the media coverage of the suicides of Rehtaeh Parsons, Amanda Todd and Jamie Hubley shows that information published on social media influenced how journalists reported on these deaths. Through interviews with journalists and mental health professionals, this thesis examines changing societal attitudes to mental health and suicide and implications for media coverage. It concludes that social media is changing the reporting of suicides and that guidelines meant to influence such reporting remain important to help deter copycat acts, provided they respect journalistic integrity.


title: Framing Narratives: An Examination of Women's Histories in the Wyatt Historic House Museum

abstract: Historic house museums can offer unique access to a variety of histories and narratives. However, there is a tendency for homes to be reconstructed, conserved, and curated as historic house museums in an attempt to preserve male-centred histories. This male focus within a domestic context is ironic, as the home was a place strongly associated with constructed ideals of women during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Adopting a material culture perspective, this thesis explores the potential of house museums to provide rich and textured histories through the curation and interpretation of historical objects, including the architecture of the house itself. My thesis examines the Wyatt Historic House Museum as a site that successfully frames women’s histories and narratives. I discuss a series of objects and architectural elements of the home and consider in particular how they contribute to a narrative framing of women’s health issues during the period.


title: Air-Borne Sound Transmission through Triple-Leaf Walls: Modelling, Measurement and Optimization

abstract: The Midply™ triple-leaf shear resistive wall is designed by FPInnovations and UBC to be employed in mid-rise wood building. Compared to double-leaf structures, this wall has a weaker low-frequency sound insulation due to the additional resonance created by the middle-leaf. The original contribution of this thesis is developing a method to predict the air-borne sound transmission through triple-leaf walls, which can incorporate perforated plates. The model is based on a modified Transfer Matrix Method (TMM) that accounts for the losses at the perimeter of the finite cavity. The air-borne sound transmission tests performed on simplified small-scale structures showed that the modified TMM model has acceptable predictions in most frequencies, although Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) was superior for high-frequency predictions. The research suggests that the sound insulation in triple-leaf structures could be improved through careful perforation of the middle-leaf, which is suggested for future work.


title: Development of a Simulation and Optimization Framework for Improved Aerodynamic Performance of R/C Helicopter Rotor Blades

abstract: To improve the performance of small unmanned rotorcraft systems based on commercially available radio controlled helicopter components the simulation and optimization framework Qoptr was developed. Two simulation modules model main rotor performance in hover using blade element momentum theory and in forward flight conditions employing a blade element theory approach. The forward flight module incorporates empirical induced inflow models and rigid blade motion. Two software packages based on viscous-inviscid interaction methods were evaluated on their ability to generate the low Re aerodynamic airfoil performance coefficients required by the simulation modules at conditions applicable to large r/c helicopters. The Qoptr hover module was integrated into an optimization scheme using an algorithm from the MATLAB Optimization Toolbox. Starting from a rotor using typical r/c rotor blades the optimization raised the rotor figure of merit from 0.56 to 0.70 by adjusting rotor speed, solidity and spanwise distributions of blade pitch and chord length.


title: European-level Industrial and Class Relations in the Wake of the Eurozone Crisis

abstract: European labour has suffered a great number of defeats since the Eurozone Crisis began in October, 2009. In the crisis response, the EU implemented policies that have consistently prioritized the needs of capital over those of the working class. This thesis uses a class-based analysis to contextualize industrial relations at the European level during the Eurozone crisis. It concludes that the outcome of the crisis was grounded in the thirty years that preceded the crisis, during which time neoliberalism was engrained into the formation of the EU. The neoliberal policy set provided capital with a significant structural advantage and tied organize labour to structure in which it was structurally disadvantaged. Fundamentally, the weakness of labour is grounded in its lack structural power at the European level. In order to correct this, labour will have to take steps to build solidarity that is grounded on a common European identity.


title: "Everything is in the Lab Book”: The Role of the Lab Book Genre in Writing, Knowledge-Making, and Identity Construction in Academic Medical Physics Labs

abstract: This qualitative study investigates how the multimodal nature of the lab book facilitates knowledge-making and identity construction in an academic medical physics community located in a Canadian university. The study employs the theoretical framework of Writing, Activity, and Genre Research (WAGR) in combination with the theoretical notions of communities of practice (CoP) and multimodality. The data collected include observational field notes, multimodal lab books collected from, and semi-structured interviews conducted with, five participants in the academic medical physics community. Findings of the study indicate that the lab book, particularly its multimodal features, serves as an important knowledge-making artefact within the medical physics community, providing a means of reifying experimental results and a space for community members to participate and negotiate their professional identities. Implications for further research of the nature of knowledge in medical physics, as well as implications for multimodal genre analysis, are discussed.


title: Leaving Kuujjuarapik: An Ethnography of the Inuit Experience of Travelling Down South to Face Justice

abstract: Aboriginal people continue to be disproportionately overrepresented in Canadian correctional populations. Most of the literature regarding “what works” for Aboriginal inmates, places great emphasis on traditional culture as a primary method of rehabilitation. However little is known of how Aboriginal peoples actually perceive mainstream Western programming or culturally sensitive programming. Through the narratives of Inuit participants, this research attempts to determine how Inuit peoples experience Western forms of justice and how they negotiate the use and forms of traditional culture to create common ground with Elders and resist further perceived attempts of assimilation by the state.


title: Squaring Palliser's Triangle:  The Normalization of Nature in the Canadian Dry-land Prairies 1860-1940

abstract: Located within the Northern Great Plains, with an area that intersects the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, Palliser’s Triangle is the driest region in the Canadian Prairies. This arid expanse, first reported by early explorers of the North American West and later mapped and confirmed by the Palliser Expedition Report of 1860, holds an important place in Canadian geography. This research asserts that the colonization of Palliser’s Triangle was more than simply putting people on land that “should never have been broken” (Gray 1967: 7); it involved the systematic production of normality through multiple political technologies. This critical analysis unsettles Palliser’s Triangle through an investigation of nature’s normalization. I employ Foucault’s conception of normalization and its hallmark, homogenization through individualization, to re-politicize Palliser’s Triangle’s colonization and settlement. Normalization, I argue, was produced through the individualization of nature, a shift of the spotlight from a delineated problem region to illuminate identifiable and locatable problematic farms and individuals. In doing so, individual parcels of land and the character of male farmers who managed them were made increasingly visible, strategically shifting attention away from the larger political economy of dry-land settlement. The triangulated “micro-physics” (Foucault 1977: 26) of the ‘soul,’ space, and the norm in Palliser’s Triangle settlement pitted the multiple forces of individualization against myriad forces that resisted being individualized including various Aboriginal peoples, male farmers, women farmers, soils, climate factors, weather patterns, flora, and fauna. This research illuminates the exercises of power that enabled and maintained a precarious settlement in the dry-land prairies despite nature’s resistance.


title: Making It Theirs: The Case of Portfolio Use by Teachers in a Tutorial Setting

abstract: While portfolios can help connect teachers and students to the processes and products of learning and assessment (Blake, Backman, Frys, Holber, Ivan, & Sellitto, 1995), many portfolio-based assessment (PBA) methods are abandoned soon after their implementation due to, among other reasons, insufficient training and a lack of on-going curriculum support for teachers. This research draws on previous literature that highlights the theories and practices behind tutorial-based instruction, and examines the historical progression of different types of assessment. Focusing on the experiences of four tutors using PBA, this case study further examines their accounts of successes and/or failures of their PBA practices. Furthermore, this research begins to consider the relative value of portfolios as a resource for assessment, and focuses on how the implementation of PBA practices can be improved. The qualitative analysis of the data suggests varying use of PBA practices depends on teachers’ responses to a PBA approach.


title: Moving Target Search with Environment Abstraction

abstract: Moving Target Search (MTS) is a dynamic path planning problem, where an agent is trying to reach a moving entity with a minimum path cost. Problems of this nature can be found in video games and dynamic robotics, which require fast processing time (real time). In this thesis, we introduce a new algorithm for this problem - the Moving Target Search with Subgoal Graphs (MTSub). MTSub is based on environment abstraction and uses Subgoal Graphs to speed up searches without giving up cost minimal paths. The algorithm is optimal with respect to the knowledge that the agent has during the search. Experimental results show that MTSub meets the requirement of real time performance (e.g., 5 microseconds per step). Compared to G-FRA*, which is the best known dynamic algorithm so far, MTSub is up to 29 times faster in average time per step, and 186 times faster in maximum time per step.


title: Exploring Mexican Hybrid Baroque: New Perspectives on Colonial Architectural Sculpture

abstract: This thesis speaks to an alternative analysis of the cultural consequences of colonialism and how Indigenous and Mestizo styles that emerged in Mexico had a global cultural impact. These architects and sculptors created a different artistic product that enabled them to represent Christian symbols in their own way. While the Spanish were physically and intellectually removed from current European artistic developments, they were drawn by Tequitqui architecture because it was not only a new style but it also exuded a different identity. Written testimonies by Spanish individuals demonstrate that the result of cultural hybridity made an impression on the European's visual culture. Tequitqui art is often neglected in art history books. Most literature discusses Spain shaping Mexican culture, but the opposite notion is nonexistent. This study aims to challenge the Western discourse and propose that Tequitqui art and the artists who created it deserve acknowledgment in Baroque art history.


title: Development of Volatile Inorganic Compounds and Their Application for Chemical Vapour Deposition of Metal and Metal Oxide Thin Films

abstract: Chemical vapour deposition is a necessary and important technology for the manufacture of nano-thin metal films. The reactivity and thermal stability of the metal complexes used in this process are key to the deposition process. Through logical design, guanidinate ligands have evolved into iminopyrrolidinates to prevent decomposition pathways. These ligands were first tested on aluminum metal centres. Iminopyrrolidinates have been further stabilized with additional methyl moieties and have led to promising new copper precursors. Copper metal is desirable for interconnecting material in electronics due to its high conductivity. The reactivity of 1,3-diisopropyl-imidazolin-2-ylidene copper hexamethyl disilazide has been explored and yielded three new copper metal compounds. Sputtered thin films of gold have been used in metal assisted chemical etching to produce high aspect ratio structures on the surface of silicon substrates.


title: Investigating the Potential of Tabletop Natural User Interfaces Tools in Improving  the Nunaliit Cybercartographic Atlas Framework

abstract: This study presents a comprehensive qualitative analysis of natural hybrid interfaces (touch-based, gesture and tangible interfaces), as a human-computer interaction technique that has the potential to promote a methodological approach to the design of a new form of collaborative tabletop interface within the Nunaliit framework and its cybercartographic atlases. The study provides empirical evidence for the feasibility and value of incorporating collaborative interactive large displays in a mapping creation process. The results of this study are based on a usability study comprised of twenty participants and semi-structured interviews with ten professionals from various fields and experiences. The study confirms the potential benefits and applicability of employing this novel approach as an alternative to the more conventional user interfaces that are currently in use. The study offers several insights and design guidelines which will be indispensable when implementing this novel interface in the new collaborative Nunaliit framework.


title: Graphical Passwords and Practical Password Management

abstract: Text passwords pose a number of difficulties for end users, who must create, remember, and manage large numbers of passwords. Users are often regarded as the weak link in security systems, but they are a crucial component of the system, and need to be better considered in the design of security products. Many password alternatives have been proposed, but none have successfully replaced ordinary text passwords, and the potential consequences of password problems grow as more information relating to work and life is stored online. This thesis explores practical approaches to helping users select, securely reuse, and manage passwords, and investigates questions about password alternatives. The attention is on the end user, and how authentication affects these users in their daily lives. Our focus is on practical, actionable results to assist end users in their daily tasks. The thesis begins by investigating issues of memorability with graphical passwords, and proposes the design of PassTiles, a new graphical password system that allows secure random memorable passwords to be easily assigned. This graphical password system is used to explore what type of memory retrieval best supports the memorability of graphical passwords, and the results show that cued-recall graphical passwords give an advantageous combination of memorability and usability. Password coping strategies are next explored through interviews with end users, and investigation into the techniques that users rely on to handle current password demands. Interviews with expert users were conducted to understand how their additional expertise helps them manage the same problems faced by end users. Grounded Theory analysis led to the emergence of a password life cycle model. A survey study suggested that the coping strategies discussed in the interviews are widespread. Finally, the thesis proposes the design of a password manager to support users' existing coping strategies by protecting password reuse, and to securely protect users' accounts with memorable assigned random graphical passwords.


title: Development of Palladium-Catalyzed Decarboxylative Allylation of Electron-Deficient Sulfones: Method Development and Mechanistic Studies

abstract: Palladium-catalyzed decarboxylative allylation is a powerful method of carbon-carbon bond construction. This methodology relies on an electron-withdrawing group to promote the reaction. The use of sulfones in decarboxylative allylation has been explored using both the trifluoromethylsulfonyl (triflyl) group, as well as the bis(3,5-trifluoromethyl)phenylsulfonyl (BTMP) group. These substrates are highly reactive at room temperature (triflyl) and 50 oC (BTMP sulfones). A detailed mechanistic study using deuterium-labelled substrates was performed to understand the origin of the protonation side-product. It was proposed that a β-hydride elimination from the η1 allyl on palladium could generate a palladium hydride intermediate along with an allene. Although small amounts of deuterium incorporation were observed in the protonated products, the proposed mechanism could not be the major pathway. Using isotopically labelled ligand, however, all protonation was surpressed. This suggests that the origin of the proton is actually from the ligand and that kinetic isotope effects may be responsible for inhibiting the protonation pathway with labelled ligand.


title: "And I think to myself - what a Marvel-ous world" an examination of Marvel Studios' influence and role in the franchising of contemporary superhero films

abstract: This thesis presents a framework for understanding Marvel Studios’ current domination of superhero franchising in Hollywood and the impact of this domination on the film industry as a whole. Since the turn of the millennium, superhero films have developed into one of the most reliable, and profitable, properties studios can offer in the face of shrinking film attendance. Marvel Studios has established itself as the leading producer of superhero films, culminating in the success of the Avengers (2012) as reportedly the third-highest grossing film domestically and worldwide in the history of the film industry. The aim overall is to illuminate the ground breaking impact on the contemporary film industry, both creative and monetary, of Marvel Studios and its novel approach to media franchising.


title: INVESTIGATION OF THE CATALYTIC AND REGULATORY DOMAINS OF CYSTATHIONINE β-SYNTHASE

abstract: Cysthationine β-Synthase (CBS) is a pyridoxal 5’-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the condensation of serine and homocysteine to form cysthathionine. Deficiency in CBS activity is the leading cause for the disorder homocystinuria in humans. The focus of the studies described in this thesis is to investigate the mechanism of homocystinuria-associated mutations in the active site of yeast CBS, the potential of native tryptophan residues as probes of conformational change and the binding of SAM to the regulatory domain. Site-directed replacement variants of 9 residues located in the active-site of the truncated form of yeast CBS (residues 1-353) were characterized. The results suggest that the hydrogen bonding network comprising residues K112, E111, K327, E244 and T326 is a determinant of active-site architecture and dynamics. Residues G245, I246 and G247, situated adjacent to the cofactor, play a role in maintaining PLP in a catalytically productive orientation. With the goal of developing probes of conformational change within the catatlytic domain and of communication between the catalytic and regulatory domain of CBS, single and triple-substitution, site-directed variants of the four tryptophan residues of yeast CBS (W132, W263, W333 and W340) were characterized in the truncated and full-length enzyme forms. The results demonstrate that residue W263 is the main contributor for fluorescence resonance energy transfer to the PLP cofactor. Substitution of W333 and W340 causes a change in the degree of solvent exposure in the microenvironment of these residues. This is due to the presence of the regulatory domain in the full-length enzyme. Binding of SAM to the regulatory domain of human CBS leads to enzyme activation. In contrast, the Drosophila melanogaster and yeast CBS enzymes are not activated by SAM. The binding of SAM to the regulatory domains of yeast and human CBS was investigated via fluorescence spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. The results indicate that the full-length yeast enzyme does not bind to SAM, suggesting that, similar to the drosophila enzyme, yeast CBS may locked in a conformation that does not allow SAM-binding to its regulatory domain.


title: Gallium Nitride Phase Shifters

abstract: This thesis presents two different types of high-power gallium nitride (GaN) phase shifters designed for X-band (8–12 GHz) but offering good performance over a much wider band. The first type of phase shifter is a novel design having 22.5° phase shift, which promises wide bandwidth (in this case limited by the SPDT switch also designed), but achieves decent insertion loss (5 dB), good return loss (better than 11 dB) and very low phase variation (1°) across X-band. The components for a 45° differential phase shift using the same structure were also fabricated and verified with measurements. The second type of phase shifter is a 22.5° switched-filter phase shifter which has much wider bandwidth than is typically found with this configuration, while maintaining low insertion loss (<2 dB), good return loss (>11.15 dB) and an amplitude imbalance of less than 1.03 dB across X-band. The 1 dB compression point was higher than the laboratory equipment was able to measure (>38 dBm) and the phase shifter monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) exhibited an input-referred third-order intercept point (IIP3) higher than 46 dBm. A K-band phase shifter was also designed to test the limits of the technology. The high-power phase shifters have been fabricated in a 0.5 μm GaN HEMT process and were designed using an accurate, customized switch HEMT model. Suspended inductors offering improved quality factor and increased self-resonance frequency were also used in the design of some of the phase shifters.


title: Form Excess to Access: A New Form of Food Distribution in Winnipeg, Manitoba

abstract: Global food production and distribution to cities have created opportunities and difficulties, simultaneously. Exploring global and local development and distribution, this thesis aims to explore how food production and distribution has evolved over time, as well as how agricultural technology and architectural design can contribute to a new form of food distribution in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Through localization and using the latest agricultural technologies, a new food exchange hub will be designed to focus on providing healthy, perishable foods to the community. The intent is to redirect and transform the current state of the global food system from a position of excess to a state of access. By re-designing an abandoned pump house station it will act as a central hub where farmers and consumers in Winnipeg will be able to interact, giving the opportunity to consumers to know where, when, and how their food is grown, produced, and distributed.


title: Civell: Eliminating the Waiting Room in the Emergency Department of Canadian Health Care Facilities

abstract: Waiting is a common experience in medical environments that is often characterized by stress, chaos, boredom, uncertainty, loss of privacy, suffering, pain, and even death. Prolonged waits in the emergency department can induce psychological and physiological distress in the occupants. Waiting areas act collectively as a series of buffer zones that are occupied and utilized by patients, visitors, and staff members. Rather than eradicating wait times and dismissing the current Canadian health care system, the proposed design project aims to transform the passage of time associated with anxious waiting into a productive, safe, and positive emotional experience for all occupants. The project severs the familiar boundaries of the waiting room, and introduces a series of interconnected activity spaces that suggest flow and movement. The design also ensures that the site’s primary functions as a national historic location and an active research landscape are preserved.


title: Representing Botnet-enabled Cyber-attacks and Botnet-takedowns using Club Theory

abstract: The literature on botnet-enabled cyber-attacks and the literature on botnet takedowns have progressed independently from each other. In this research, these two literature streams are brought together. Botnet-enabled cyber-attacks and botnet takedowns are conceptualized as collective actions carried out by individuals, groups, and organizations that are linked by the Internet and club theory is used to examine the inner workings of these collective actions. This research examines five scenarios of botnet-enabled cyber-attacks and five scenarios of botnet takedowns to develop a representation of cyber-attacks and infer capabilities of four club types: Attacker, Defender, Botnet beheader, and Botnet operator. The representation developed identifies the dimensions of the three constructs of club theory: club membership size; size of the facility that club members share; and arrangements to operate, purchase/rent and grow the shared facility. Club capabilities were organized into five types: relationships, attack infrastructure, skills, learning, and others.


title: The Constructs of the Living Labs Innovation Platform

abstract: Despite the growing popularity of using living labs as an innovation platform, little is known about their characteristics. This research uses a case study approach with content analysis to identify a list of key attributes that help define the concept of living labs. Drawing upon the literatures on user innovation, co-creation, and living labs, theoretical constructs were used to guide the investigation of living lab applications that are publically available through the European Network of Living Labs (ENoLL) website. The results from the research produced nine constructs that give insight into living labs. These constructs reflect both qualified pre-existing notions and disqualified notions of living labs, such as the objective, the degree to which users are involved, and the legal structure for operations. They bring about significant new knowledge regarding the nature of living labs, including their modes of communication, their purposes, handling of intellectual property, and generation of funds.


title: Architecture(s) of the Interdisciplinary:  A Knowledge Repository for the Canada Council for the Arts

abstract: Architecture is known to have two definitions: one relating to the processes as a tectonic-centric discipline while the other is used to describe the structure of a complex system. Leveraging both of these definitions, this thesis explores the issue of interdisciplinary in order to challenge how architectural knowledge might continue to draw on disciplines beyond its boundaries and the implications this may have for both the profession and practice. This position finds reason through the lens of the Canadian Council for the Arts, an institute which inherently promotes Canadian culture through awarding grants and prizes based on disciplinary categories. From this, the Canada Council for the Arts will be further explored by means of a proposal that addresses concepts of content production and access to knowledge. This proposal acts as a means to discuss how the exchange of knowledge between disciplines is a relevant concern for architectural production.


title: Modeling of Barrier Failure and Fire Spread in CUrisk

abstract: CUrisk, a computer fire risk analysis model, is being developed at Carleton University for over a decade. To better evaluate failure of building elements and spread of fire beyond the room of fire origin, this thesis developed and integrated into CUrisk a barrier failure model and a fire spread model. A probabilistic fire spread model developed at Carleton University was incorporated into CUrisk system model. The role and position of the Fire Spread submodel were analyzed and changes to the system model and some other submodels were undertaken. With these modifications, CUrisk can employ the Fire Spread submodel to predict the fire hazard conditions in a building fire, and to use the results to predict the life risk and fire damages. Through a comprehensive case study the Fire Spread submodel demonstrated good results. To assist the development of a barrier failure model for CUrisk, six full-scale room fire tests were conducted and analyzed. The fire evolution and contribution of the timber assembly components to the room fire were investigated. The response of assembly components in the fire were studied as well. The test findings were used to improve the CUrisk submodels and particularly to develop the barrier failure model. A barrier failure model was developed based on the concept of component subtractive method. The temperature profile of a building assembly is calculated by a one-dimensional finite difference heat transfer approach. A probabilistic barrier failure model was developed by taking into account the uncertainties of some factors that affect the assembly failure. With this model, the probability of failure as a function of fire exposure time can be generated. The model performance was verified by comparing with the fire test measurements, which demonstrated good agreements. Comparable results are also predicted regarding the fall-off behaviour of the fire-exposed gypsum board as well as the charring behaviour. Finally, a fire risk analysis case study was conducted on a six-storey apartment building. Results indicated that CUrisk can better handle the impact of fire barriers on the fire risk with the new Barrie Failure submodel.


title: Long-Term Care:  A Regional Model for Rural Prince Edward Island

abstract: This study investigates and proposes modifications to the present provincial long term care model on Prince Edward Island. The current model has been designed to encompass larger numbers of individuals which requires the relocation from the normal everyday existence of an individual to something entirely new. This thesis investigates the possibility to make revisions to this predominant and current model to allow for several smaller rural facilities allowing for the residents to remain within their original communities, lessening the traumatic effects of a transition to an assisted life. Redirecting the focus to rural areas of Prince Edward Island will encourage continual contact between the inhabitant, their family, and their definition of home. The proposed prototypical model will also allow individuals the ability to remain in their communities promoting a longer, healthier way of life.


title: Stratigraphy, Geochemistry, Isotopic Signatures and VMS Potential of Late Archean Volcanic Rocks from the Southern Slave Craton, Northwest Territories – Regional Comparison to Sharrie Lake and Turnback Lake Volcanic Belts

abstract: Neoarchean metavolcanic belts in the Slave craton, Northwest Territories, Canada, overlay a Paleo- to Mesoarchean granite-gneiss complex and its Mesoarchean volcano-sedimentary cover. The ca. 2.70 Ga Kam Group and ca. 2.66 Ga Banting Group volcanic stratigraphy, as defined in the Yellowknife volcanic belt, has been applied to all volcanic belts in the Slave craton and is based primarily on geochemical signatures. Recent geochemistry, age data, and Nd-isotopic analyses supports distinct volcanic episodes occurred intermittent to Kam volcanism and Banting volcanism. Geochemical and isotopic similarities exist amongst mafic and intermediate volcanic rocks, whereas two distinct geochemical signatures define felsic volcanic rocks. Evidence at Sharrie and Turnback volcanic belts supports magma emplacement in a rift system with an evolving, heterogeneous source. Finally, Archean volcanic belts are known for housing VMS deposits and the Slave craton volcanic belts show potential for hosting base-metal deposits.


title: Sustainability and Self-reliance: Cooperative Approaches in the Design and Development of Housing Components within Inuit Communities

abstract: Much has been written on the Inuit housing crisis in the Canadian Arctic. Strains on existing public housing are creating health and sociocultural issues within Inuit communities. The North has a high rate of unemployment and there is a need to develop businesses to allow for a young, growing population to become more self-reliant. Energy-efficient fenestration is a vital component for the northern sustainable house. These topics are explored in the literature review and data analysis. The research brought together private and public sector experts from across Canada to generate knowledge-based suggestions which, after convergent analysis, led to the identification of critical barriers for establishing the development of a northern fenestration system that could be maintained and manufactured within Inuit communities. The study demonstrated how a holistic cooperative approach of multi-sectorial partnerships could be used to assist in the development of a design guideline for an Arctic specific fenestration system.


title: Deconstructing the Superblock: Universal Solutions vs. Cultural Specificity in Chinese Urban Planning

abstract: Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, an unprecedented 300 million Chinese have migrated to cities. As a means of responding to this immense growth, urban development has generally taken the form of repetitive towers corralled into gated superblocks that are separated by wide, arterial streets. This approach to planning has a long history in China. Rooted in cultural values which are uniquely Chinese, it stands in contrast to traditional Western patterns of urbanization that emphasize the individual. Nonetheless, Reform Era tower ensembles have been criticized for being homogeneous, car-centric, and lacking human scale – problems that may threaten their long-term sustainability. Attempts to apply Western precepts to the reinvention of the Chinese superblock frequently do not take into account particularities of the Chinese context. This thesis explores an adapted approach to urban development that is informed by the Western experience while remaining rooted in China's urban traditions.


title: Conveying Symbolic Relations: Children's Ability to Evaluate and Create Informative Legends

abstract: Symbols are used regularly in our daily lives, but in order for a symbol to serve its intended purpose, its meaning must be conveyed in some way (Myers & Liben, 2012). Across two studies, this research examined 4- to 6-year-olds' understanding of how the relations between symbols and their referents are effectively conveyed using legends. To investigate this issue, a novel task was developed in which it was necessary to convey the arbitrary correspondence between symbols (the shapes on top of a set of boxes) and a set of referents (cards with shapes on them), so that an unknowing other would know which card went inside each box. Study One was an investigation of children’s ability to evaluate legends that either effectively or ineffectively conveyed symbol-referent relations. Children’s performance was examined in relation to age, the ability to detect ambiguity (Ambiguous Messages and Droodle tasks), and Executive Function skills (Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, Planning tasks). The results provide evidence that both the ability to detect ambiguity and Executive Function uniquely relate to children’s ability to evaluate legends. Study Two investigated a new group of children’s ability to create a legend to convey symbol-referent pairs, in relation to the same cognitive skills considered in Study One. In addition, to examine the impact of exposure to effective legends, half of the children who did not create an effective legend were then presented with legends created by the experimenter, while the other half served as the baseline group. Children who received this exposure, relative to those in the baseline group, significantly improved their legend creations and transferred this improvement to a new set of stimuli. This study found evidence that ambiguity detection was related both to legend creation on children’s first attempt, and children’s ability to improve following exposure. However, Executive Function performance did not relate to legend production. Taken together, these studies provide insight on factors that relate to children’s developing understanding of how symbol meanings are effectively conveyed, and argue for the important role of being able to detect ambiguity.


title: Improvisational Lines: The Architecture of an Informal Syrian Refugee Settlement

abstract: The thesis project responds to Syrian refugee camps in Lebanon; in particular the illegal settlements that have been rapidly multiplying due to massive migration of the displaced population. The research will examine the cultural and social effects of life in exile in order to understand the current reality of the refugee community. The project will be articulated around the notions of temporality and improvised methodologies. The conception process will take into consideration the unpredictability of circumstances, as well as the eventuality of the refugees going back home. The process will also favor a do-it-yourself method as a response to the frequent motion of the refugee population. The research will try to answer the following questions: What are the architectural values of a clandestine settlement? What are the factors that define it? How can a temporal structure instill stability and provide a sense of belonging?


title: Developing a 2-Phase Screening System to Assess the in vitro and in vivo Stability of Engineering Native Seed Storage Proteins

abstract: Seed storage proteins are the nitrogen and sulfur reserves for the germinating embryo and comprise the majority of the protein content of a seed (Shewry et al, 1995; Tandang-Silvas et al, 2010). The 11S globulins are the principal seed storage proteins in members of the legume and mustard families. They are targets for protein engineering studies attempting to alter the physicochemical properties (e.g. emulsification and gelling) and nutritional value, with respect to amino acid content, of their seed protein extracts (Muntz et al, 1998; Tandang-Silvas et al, 2011). The factor that has limited the success of these studies to date is insufficient accumulation of the engineered variants in vivo due to their reduced stability, compared to the native protein. To address this issue, this thesis describes the development of a 2-phase screening system that facilitates protein engineering of native 11S globulins by assessing the ability of stable site-directed variants to accumulate in seeds. Phase I employs E. coli as an expression system to assess the thermodynamic stability of the engineered seed storage proteins in vitro. Methionine-enriched 11S globulins with stability parameters similar to the wild-type protein are then expressed in A. thaliana in phase II, the in vivo component of the screen, to assess the ability of the engineered protein to accumulate in plant seeds. To complement the novel 2-phase screening system, a comprehensive survey of 67-methionine-enriched variants of a model A. thaliana 11S globulin was completed, employing fluorescence-monitored guanidine hydrochloride denaturation to identify regions of the protein that are amenable to the introduction of methionine residues. This survey demonstrates that methionine can be introduced into 11S globulins but single locations cannot be treated as sinks for the introduction of multiple, sequential methionine residues. The use of HotSpot Wizard in conjunction with available structural data is a successful strategy for short-listing residues as targets for substitution to methionine. This thesis developed tools, a 2-phase screen and an information platform identifying regions within the 11S globulin structure that are accepting of methionine introduction, to facilitate subsequent protein engineering studies attempting to alter the physicochemical or nutritional properties of seed proteins.


title: Beauty Marks: Counter-hegemonic Power of the Body?

abstract: My dissertation furthers a conversation about beauty and the body in communication studies by considering how beauty standards, norms and practices operate within techniques and tactics of power in diverse modes of communication. Using an interdisciplinary approach, the dissertation re-figures ‘beauty’ as a meaningful concept, considering it not just as an instrument of (patriarchal) domination but also as part of techniques and tactics of resistance to domination. The claim of my dissertation is that beauty should be re-conceptualized in ways that counter the generally accepted notion of the term, particularly in the field of communication studies where media practices are held mainly to reproduce unattainable body ideals that are designed to keep women in positions of subordination (Bordo, 1993/2003; Brand, 2000; Kilbourne, 2000; Wolfe, 1991). It also brings some nuances to cultural studies scholarship that suggests that the body is not only a natural entity but is often culturally produced in line with patriarchal, capitalist and racist interests (Collins, 1990; Hall, 1997; Phillips, 2004). Through an analysis of diverse practices of communication situated in different contexts, I investigate the ways in which beauty standardisation and normalisation practices can operate in processes of counter-hegemony. Operating from the starting point that beauty is a social construct and tied to communication and media practices, I examine its operation in different types and techniques of power and resistance using three case studies: 1) propaganda posters and face-to-face communication under German Fascism; 2) fashion blogging and social media practices; and 3) neo-burlesque theatre. I use the concepts of (counter) hegemony developed by Gramsci and Milliband and introduced to the areas of communication and culture by Hall, Williams and Martin-Barbero to extend beyond a top down model of power. To complement this approach, I borrow from a Foucauldian model of power and resistance, using the notions of governmentality, subjectification, biopower, and technologies of the self to flesh out a non-hierarchical type of power that targets the body. This conceptual framework finally uses Butler's notion of gender performativity and de Certeau's concept of tactics to go more deeply into some aspects of my three case studies.


title: Evaluation of a Charge Readout Pad Scheme for Next Enriched Xenon Observatory

abstract: Neutrinos are fundamental particles. They are amongst the most difficult particle to detect due to their properties. Their existence have been known for a while, yet their masses still have not been measured. The Enriched Xenon Observatory is attempting to probe their masses by observing the neutrinoless double beta decay in 136Xenon. Their detector is a liquid xenon filled time-projection-chamber. To ameliorate their measured sensitivity, an improved, scintillation and ionization, detector is required. The work presented here focuses on the development of a new charge readout scheme. A small gas TPC was built to test different charge readout pads. This detector measures the ionization signals produced in isobutane gas. Signals are read by a commercial data acquisition system. The data analysis will demonstrate the challenges faced during the operation and modelling. The energy resolution and angular distribution results provides guidance for the collaboration for the future of these charge readout scheme.


title: Computational Prediction of N-linked Glycosylation Sites on Plant Proteins

abstract: Glycosylation is an important form of protein post-translational modification where a glycan is attached to a protein via an enzymatic process. Experimental verification of glycosylation using wet lab techniques is expensive and time-consuming. While a number of computational prediction tools are available, none are trained using plant proteins. Since the mechanisms of glycosylation in plant and animal cells are known to differ, there is a need to develop a plant-specific predictor. In this thesis, we create such predictors of N-linked glycosylation using support vector machines and binary profile patterns derived from protein sequence windows as input feature data. The final classifier achieves a recall of 80.0% and 79.0% precision, as measured using a 10-fold cross-validation test. Our plant-specific classifier is more accurate on plant proteins than are other classifiers developed here and elsewhere. Finally, we have developed a web server to make the tool available to the research community.


title: Adverse Selection in Household Investment in Education in Egypt:  Can the World Bank Policy Recommendations Offer a Solution for Egyptian Households?

abstract: The Egyptian labour market gives preference to graduates of higher levels of education to fill remunerative jobs, which has encouraged households from all income levels to invest in post-secondary education. However, this investment failed to pay off in labour market outcomes as the number of graduates exceeded the number of remunerative jobs leading a substantial proportion of graduates to either accept low-paid jobs or remain unemployed until they secure remunerative ones. Paradoxically, in response to these unfavourable outcomes, households have continued to invest heavily in higher levels of education to give their children a competitive advantage to secure one of the few remunerative jobs, a behaviour best described as a version of "adverse selection." This situation has posed a challenge for Egyptian policy makers who faced the problems of increased demand for higher education and more unemployed educated youth. To address this challenge, the World Bank has consistently advised the Egyptian government to: a) reduce government intervention in labour markets; b) decrease public subsides, while encouraging private investment in post-secondary education; and c) improve the quality of education to match the needs of private employers and increase demand for educated youth. This thesis examines whether such recommendations could address labour market challenges faced by educated youth and avoid encouraging household spending. Toward this goal, the effect of changes in Egypt's policy direction, from a centrally-planned to a market economy, on the education-labour market relationship and on public and private investment in education was studied. Through interviews with a sample of Egyptian households, the determinants of Egyptian household spending on education were also examined to better understand how the quality and/or outcomes of higher education have influenced such spending. Evidence suggests that for the World Bank's policies to tackle the underlying causes of "adverse selection," they must go beyond attributing education-labour market problems to the quality of education and to distortions caused by government education and labour market policies and focus on the need to promote the creation of good quality jobs. Fortunately, a recent shift by the World Bank to focus on creating good jobs may be a positive development.


title: The Watchdog of Nationalism: The Romanian Press in Interwar Transylvania and its Role in the Creation of National Identity

abstract: This study focuses on the role of the interwar Romanian press in Transylvania in the creation of national identity following the union of the aforementioned province with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. It argues that the Romanian press contributed significantly in constructing, circulating and reproducing a national identity buttressed by the discourse of integral nationalism during the first decade of the interwar period. Based on Romanian newspaper articles covering various nation-building policies and practices, this thesis examines the attempted nationalization of Transylvania's multi-ethnic, multi-confessional character through the politics of cultural engineering.


title: Development of Computational and Experimental Benchmark Data for Wind Turbine Aeroelastic Algorithms

abstract: Aeroelastic algorithms that predict a rotor blade's aerodynamic performance and structural response efficiently and rapidly as a tool for preliminary design stages are an ongoing concern for the professional practitioners. These aeroelastic algorithms require validation data upon which their accuracy can be determined. To this end, a validation process was investigated and applied to determine the accuracy of the Preliminary Aeroelastic Analysis of Wind Turbine (PAAC-WTB) algorithm, an algorithm that was recently developed in the Advanced Dynamic Research group. A preliminary wind tunnel test was performed on a 3D-printed reduced scale model of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) S809 blade, and CFD and FEA analysis was performed using ANSYS on an S809 blade model. Comparison of the algorithm results against experimental and ANSYS results showed good agreement and thus the validation process was deemed successful.


title: Adoption of Cybersecurity Capability Maturity Models in Municipal Governments

abstract: Cyberattacks are increasing in diversity and volume placing information and communications technology (ICT) as well as physical assets at risk. Municipal governments operating as the provider of an interdependent network of e-government services, Information and Communications Technology, and Critical Infrastructure (CI) have a requirement to quickly, easily, and inexpensively secure their ICT systems and physical assets. In addition to other sources, this study sampled data from Canadian municipal government CIO’s using expert interviews followed by a web-based survey in the winter of 2015 to help inform both the development of a Cybersecurity Capability Maturity Model for Canadian municipalities and to provide recommendations pertaining to the adoption of such a model. The study confirmed the low level of recognition by Canadian municipalities regarding Cybersecurity Capability Maturity Models. This research will be of interest to CIOs of municipalities, providers of cybersecurity services, academic researchers, and those interested in securing critical infrastructure.


title: Explicit Instruction of Formulaic Expressions and Second Language Pragmatic Competence: A Collective Case Study

abstract: Formulaic expressions often carry a strong sense of social contract and perform specific pragmatic purposes (Bardovi-Harlig, 2012) and therefore play a crucial role in developing L2 pragmatic competence. The present study investigated whether and how the explicit instruction of refusal and thanking formulaic expressions can foster acquisition and retention of these expressions and help L2 learners in developing their pragmatic competence and overcoming challenges they face while performing these speech acts. The results imply that explicit instruction of such expressions and semantic formulas can increase learners’ understanding of the complex phenomenon of formulaicity and help their spoken language become more pragmatically appropriate, more grammatically accurate, more fluent, concise and confident. Explicit instruction also helps L2 learners to overcome the challenges they may face while performing refusal and thanking speech acts.


title: Remembering the Civil Service:  Work and Life Stories of Indigenous Labourers in the Canadian Federal Civil Service

abstract: This thesis examines the life stories of six Indigenous civil servants who worked in the Canadian federal public service from the late 1960s until today. To contextualize these lived experiences, this thesis also explores the development of a culture of merit, representation, and employment equity within the federal civil service in the twentieth century. Stories of work were provided within the frame of larger life stories, allowing narrators to speak to both their perceptions of the civil service as an employer and also the role and meaning of this work within their lives. As a result, this thesis argues that the complexity of individual experiences, identity formation, and memory make it difficult to generalize about “the Indigenous civil servant” in any meaningful way. Relatedly, this thesis also emphasizes both the enriching possibilities and the unique challenges of conducting life story oral interviews and “sharing authority” in collaborative research projects.


title: A Robust Approach for Road Users Classification Using Motion Cues

abstract: This thesis presents a framework that is designed to classify road users into vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians by using the motion cues obtained from their tracks. The road user tracks are obtained using a tracker system such as computer vision techniques. The separate pieces of information are gained from these motion cues are hereafter called Classifiers. There are nineteen classifiers included in this framework. After obtaining the classifiers’ values from the tracked objects’ tracks, the information from these classifiers will be assessed and integrated using fuzzy membership approach, which in turn requires prior configurations to be available. This will lead to the final classification. The performance of this framework demonstrated very promising results under different measures. An important contribution of this study is the creation of a robust approach that can integrate different motion cues using fuzzy membership framework.


title: Four Essays on Identification-Robust Numerical and Statistical Tools with Applications to Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium Models

abstract: In this thesis, we propose identification-robust numerical and statistical confidence-set estimation tools for Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium [DSGE] models. The first chapter introduces Particle Swarm Optimization [PSO] to econometrics with focus on test inversion and numerical projections. Empirically, the paper analyzes a three-equation New-Keynesian model. In contrast to PSO, the genetic algorithm, simulated annealing and even grid searches converge to local optima that suggest misleading economic decisions on: (i) the nature of the New-Keynesian Phillips Curve [NKPC], (ii) determinacy of monetary policies, and (iii) the persistence of the Taylor rule. Given this evidence and using PSO, the next three chapters introduce new and improved econometric methods for inference on DSGEs. The second chapter documents the sensitivity of the identification of DSGE models to auxiliary assumptions on exogenous shock processes using the identification-robust inference procedure of Dufour, Khalaf and Kichian (2013). We find that adding lagged endogenous variables instead of assuming autoregressive shocks to capture external propagation improves the identification of important parameters, even when the slope of the NKPC is near zero. Also, the asymptotic Likelihood Ratio [LR] test is oversized in small sample, which provides motivation for the third chapter. The third chapter proposes a finite-sample exact confidence-set estimation method using a LR distance measure for DSGEs. We demonstrate that our method has exact size in finite samples, and use it to estimate a canonical three-equation New-Keynesian DSGE model. We find no conclusive evidence that the “pre-Great Moderation" era conforms to a passive monetary policy rule corresponding to an indeterminate model, as argued in the literature. The final chapter extends the method proposed in the third chapter beyond the LR distance measure and approximate Vector Autoregression [VAR] context for DSGE models. We propose to use a VAR with Leads and Lags [VARLL] as the alternative reduced form and estimate the volatility parameters simultaneously together with other parameters. Taken collectively, the results of this thesis suggest that far more attention needs to be paid to numerical precision as test inversion gains popularity in applied econometrics.


title: Data Acquisition System Design and Validation to Record Interior Cabin Noise Levels of Aircraft

abstract: Aircraft crew members and maintenance personnel are subject to significantly high sound pressure levels. Cumulative exposure to such high levels could induce hearing loss. Therefore, choosing the optimal hearing protector is of the utmost importance. The equipment used to measure the sound levels in the aircraft cabin for helmet selection must be subjected to airworthiness regulations to be flown. This thesis documents the selection, implementation and validation of an in-flight data acquisition system. The signal route is characterized with digital signal processing theory and a comparison to LMS Test.LAB acoustic analysis software. Bell 412 in-flight data is presented to validate the measurement method. The main rotor and tail rotor harmonics were found to dominate the low frequency sound pressure levels. The analysis concluded that the SPH 5CF helmet satisfies the Canadian Labour Code Part II for in-flight occupant noise exposure limit of a maximum of 87 dBA for eight hours.


title: An Examination of the Stability of Canadian Employment Tenures

abstract: Popular perception holds that employment stability declined towards the end of the twentieth century. However, most studies conclude that the proportion of long term jobs has remained remarkably stable over the last few decades. This study focuses on this discrepancy by tracking self-reported changes in Canadian employment durations over an extended period. This is done in order to reconcile popular perception with recent studies and nest the existing literature in a broader historical context. The study makes use of finite mixture decompositions on successive cohorts of employees starting from the 1950s to identify worker types within cohort-based distributions. Then, using tests of stochastic dominance, it is shown that the distribution of employment has indeed changed. Furthermore, detailed examination by employment spell and birth cohort is used to identify contributing factors to the identified declines in stability. It is surmised that structural changes in the economy and broader society played a large role in the seeming reduction in employment stability. While for men these shifts were clear, for women the evidence was more mixed.


title: Tipping as a Tool for Gendered Exploitation in Restaurants: An Analysis on the Impacts of the Employment Standards Act for Women Serving in Ontario

abstract: Contemporary Canadian labour markets are marked by increasingly precarious and unstable working conditions, predominantly found in the secondary labour market (Thomas, 2009). Research indicates that women have been, and continue to be overrepresented in part-time and low-waged workplaces in this market (Vosko, 2006). Contributing to trends in the gendered segmentation of labour is legislation that acts to facilitate differential standards of employment for women. This thesis investigates the Ontario Employment Standards Act (ESA), with respect to its influence on waitresses in Ontario. Interviewing women occupying serving positions about tipping procedures and workplace standards, I argue that gaps in the ESA around protections over tips facilitate industry-wide standards in restaurants that systemically subordinate and exploit women workers in the food and alcohol service sector.


title: Getting There:  Generations X and Y on Changing Ages, Stages and Processes of Social Maturation in Postmodern Times

abstract: This research was inductive and used grounded theory methodology to explore and analyze social maturity, individualization and personal life. Through a discussion of generations and a re-tracing of sociological developmental models of the family and psychological models of individual psycho-social development I have re-contextualized and re-framed the concept of the QLC. The data consisted of: 1) newsprint media; 2) popular literature and self-help books; and 3) twenty-seven qualitative, face-to-face interviews; and 4) autoethnographic field notes of the author's personal experience. The participants presented as the social hosts of two sets of generationally specific cultural norms and expectations. These often conflicting generational discourses can be detected in their narratives between their descriptions of their expectations for their twenties and the everyday, lived reality of those years. Changing the order and timing of social development on the individual level has an impact on the taken for granted 'common sense' concept of 'growing-up.' As women told their ‘coming of age’ stories, it became increasingly clear that they were often talking about ‘getting there,’ and about adulthood as a journey and a process rather than simply a destination with a series of set stages. Some of the processes that women engaged in were: 1) questioning and re-defining of the meaning and markers of 'growing-up' for themselves; 2) taking responsibility for and care of themselves and/or others; 3) making decisions autonomously; 4) actively re-constructing their identity; and 5) coordinating their ‘personal life.’ I see this as reflective of the process of individualization and the impact of neoliberal discourses. Further, as a sociological extension to Oliver Robinson’s psychological model for the QLC, I have argued that social barriers can also create quarterlife challenges where people, women in particular, experience standing on the outside of expected and desired roles because of actual social, political, and economic barriers rather than being trapped by the individual’s psychological ‘illusion’ of being ‘stuck’ in an unwanted relationship or work role, as Robinson suggests.


title: Enriched Environment: A Treatment Centre for Transitional Youth with Mental Illness

abstract: The number of transitional youth affected by mental illness is growing drastically. However, they often fall through the cracks of the mental health care system since a critical gap exists between the facilities and services offered for treatment. A new type of residential community care called ‘step-up/step-down’ facilities can provide a ‘step up’ option for youth at risk of an acute inpatient hospitalization, or a ‘step down’ option to assist in the seamless transition of youth re-entering the community following a hospitalization. This thesis develops from an investigation into enriched environments, a concept explored by both neuroscience and neuroarchitecture. Through an analysis of existing research literature and scientific studies on healing spaces, neuroscience, and neuroarchitecture, this thesis goes on to explore, contextualize and then offer an architectural project that can serve to test out ideas for an enriched environment; an environment that is physically and psychologically beneficial to psychiatric patients.


title: Museum Without Artifacts: Narrative Architecture in the Bytown Museum

abstract: Museum Without Artifacts (Narrative Architecture in the Bytown Museum) examines the relationship between the stories and narratives associated with artifacts, those stories being told by the museum and the architectural implications of such a relationship. This thesis explores and questions the limitations of the walls which museums construct – both physically and abstractly. It seeks to reimagine the imaginative and historical storytelling opportunities when the walls of the modern museum are ‘broken down’ and the notion of a museum is explored on a city scale. Can we use the city to stage selected history and create an architecture around that? The intention may then still be to provide the viewer what they might demand, whatever that may be. But seeking truth in objects, place, and time invites a challenging contemporary architectural response with potential new forms.


title: Architectural (Physio)therapy: A Dynamic Healing Process

abstract: Rehabilitation facilities are not providing patients with appropriate environments for physical healing. By isolating physical therapy to a room, these spaces do little to promote movement, invigorate the senses, and assist patients with their recovery . The connective system of rehabilitation facilities, such as corridors or hallways, could allow physical therapy to expand through the building and provide patients with interactive and dynamic sessions. This thesis will investigate the idea of designing for physical rehabilitation by examining theories of healing spaces in order to achieve complete well-being. These theories will be used in conjunction with the gradual process of healing through mobility and exercise in order to design the circulation system of a physical rehabilitation centre, based in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.


title: Binaural Architecture: Sonic Compositions of Everyday Spaces

abstract: Sound has the ability to affect people in a positive or negative manner: physiologically, psychologically, cognitively and behaviourally, at all times and in all places. Architecture plays a key role in shaping sound, and in defining a soundscape. Architectural discourse is often dominated by visual design while the aural architecture becomes a result of the visual decisions, despite that all five senses are important to the experience of a space. Designing our soundscapes, both inside and out, is essential to creating environments which are conducive to their intended function, and not negatively effecting inhabitants. This thesis will investigate the often neglected aural qualities of architecture in order to conceptualize design solutions which engage the auditory sensory system in a positive manner. A tuned soundscape can then be proposed, exploring material and design manipulations, which help to create a more beneficial and enriching environment.


title: Responsive Building Envelopes: Active Apertures for Chinooks

abstract: This thesis is an investigation into responsive architecture, specifically within the building envelope. It seeks to respond to local environmental conditions and enhance sensual qualities to generate a unique architectural environment. By analyzing the wall assembly as an aperture for responding to the peculiar weather conditions in Calgary specifically Chinook winds, the responsive envelope will engage air and light movement to harness energy and create a site specific building envelope. Investigations into types and reasons for movement and their transitions will lead to experiments into the phenomena of this choreography and the delights and experiences that arise. Through analysis of existing research and documentation, this thesis presents the research and design of an 8890m2 Arts and Culture Incubator and residential building in downtown Calgary that explores the concept of the responsive building envelope to environmental condition, building program and urban context.


title: Quantifying the demographic and population impact of avian cholera on northern common eiders in the face of ancillary threats and changing environmental circumstances

abstract: Emerging infectious diseases are on the rise globally; however, determining demographic impacts and the influence of disease on wildlife population dynamics remains a significant challenge. A poleward expansion of disease-causing pathogens has been predicted in association with globalization and climate change and historically unaffected Arctic wildlife may be particularly vulnerable to epidemic disease. My research examines the influence of newly emerged avian cholera outbreaks on northern common eiders (Somateria mollissima borealis) in the Canadian Arctic. Avian cholera is a highly virulent disease of birds caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida. I take advantage of a unique opportunity to investigate transmission dynamics and the impact of this disease on eider survival and reproductive rates in a marked population at Mitivik Island, Nunavut (64.030 N, 81.789 W). I also test hypotheses on ecological factors influencing spatial occurrence of the disease with data gathered from extensive site investigations, undertaken with the assistance of Inuit harvesters throughout the Hudson Strait region. To date, mass-mortality events have been confined to northern Québec (Nunavik) and Mitivik Island with annual mortality rates of up to 43% of the female nesting population at affected colonies. Consistent with expectations for a novel pathogen, case incidence increased in an exponential fashion during the initial wave of invasion (R0 = 2.5). Recurrent outbreaks were documented during eight consecutive breeding seasons at Mitivik Island and prolonged low-frequency transmission (Rt < 1) was evident at the epidemic tail—a hallmark of disease persistence facilitated by environmental transmission. Harvest mortality appears to be additive to disease mortality in this population, which is relevant because adjustment of hunting regulations is among the few logistically feasible interventions to conserve abundance. Demographic recovery has so far been constrained by a climate-mediated increase in the frequency of polar bear (Ursus maritimus) incursions onto eider breeding colonies and associated declines in nesting success. The causes and effects of emerging infectious diseases rarely operate in isolation from other ecological stressors and the types of information that I gathered informs scientific understanding of the interacting processes regulating population dynamics in the face of rapid anthropogenically-driven environmental change.


title: Home for a New Livelihood:  Building for a Forest & Freshwater Food Foraging Community

abstract: Thunder Bay, with a population of 109,000 people is the largest community in Northwestern Ontario, Canada. The Ojibwa were the first inhabitants of the area who led a hunter-gatherer existence and developed many technologies that aided their survival in the extremes of the environment. The hunting and fishing activities of the past have been adopted by residents of Thunder Bay as recreational activities. How can the livelihood of the once self-sufficient hunter-gatherers of the area be reexamined for today’s society? This thesis explores the parameters of food security in Thunder Bay and how architecture can support a livelihood based on obtaining forest and freshwater food.


title: Robust Subthreshold CMOS Voltage-Controlled Frequency Synthesizer for Wireless Dosimeter Application

abstract: Detailed study of MOSFET behavior in the subthreshold region of operation is conducted with the 0.13 µm CMOS IBM technology. High sensitivity of subthreshold CMOS circuits to process variations is addressed. Two body-biasing circuits for stabilizing the subthreshold current of n-channel (NMOS) and p-channel (PMOS) devices are introduced. These stabilization schemes are applied to a voltage-controlled frequency synthesizer (VCFS) operating in the subthreshold region to design a robust, high resolution and ultra-low power (ULP) signal processing unit (SPU). The intended application is a wireless dosimeter, which converts radiation doses in the range of -900 mV to 0 to pulses with varying frequencies. Simulation results show a linear frequency vs. sensitivity response, generating pulses with 50% duty cycle for all inputs. The SPU yields a maximum error of 210 mV or 24% (6 Gy), minimum resolution of 15 KHz/Gy, minimum bandwidth of 805 KHz and maximum power consumption of 1.72 µW.


title: Cultures of Coloniality: Latina/o Writing in Canada

abstract: This study examines Latina/o Canadian literature and drama dealing with the themes of exile, migration, acculturation, and hybrid cultural identities, while also analyzing the national and transnational contexts in which these texts are produced. My study contends that the scant critical attention that this substantial and significant body of literature has received is due to its existence at the margins of dominant Anglo-Canadian national cultural discourses and transnational Latina/o cultural formations. In order to understand this relationship between the national and the transnational, I investigate how multilingual Latina/o Canadian writers and texts negotiate their hemispheric positions and affiliations, as well as how essentialized, U.S.-based definitions of latinidad obscure specific Latina/o experiences and literary practices in Canada. Further, I suggest that a decolonial hemispheric framework is particularly useful for understanding literature written by Latin Americans in North America and for mapping some of the connections and disjunctures between national and transnational literatures in rapidly changing “post”-colonial societies. My study of Latina/o Canadian literature considers differing sites, practices, and genres in order to demonstrate both the diversity of this body of writing and its changing place on the sometimes intersecting margins of national and transnational literary and cultural formations. Thus, this study encompasses analyses of exilic poetry, diasporic drama, travel writing, and memoir in Spanish, English, and French from the late 18th century to the present. While such differences in timeframe and genre point to the heterogeneity of Latina/o cultural production and experience, I argue that their shared thematic concerns nevertheless connect these texts across languages, generations, and national borders. In this way, my study makes a timely intervention in the fields of Latina/o, hemispheric, and critical Canadian cultural studies.


title: The Demise of Section 13 of the Canadian Human Rights Act: Reappraising the 'Battle for Free Speech'

abstract: In 2013, Bill C-304 repealed Section 13 (s. 13) of the Canadian Human Rights Act. Although the law used broad language, it had not garnered much attention until a concerted campaign sought repeal. This thesis argues that the key to understanding its demise is the way in which the hate speech backlash exploited the growing ideological belief that Islam is antagonistic to, if not incompatible with, democracy. This is evidenced by the fringe bloggers that coalesced around a conspiratorial theory of ‘Eurabia’ to turn s. 13 into a national debate. Yet, the debate changed significantly once in the mainstream to reflect a concern for free speech based upon manufactured and negative perceptions of Muslim hate speech complainants. Consensus among major Canadian newspapers is an indication of how Canadian identity was (re)constructed as essentially Western and against Muslim Others who were seen as parasitic upon the tolerant excesses of liberalism.


title: Spatial Dynamic Modelling of High Speed Craft Suspension Seating

abstract: High Speed Craft (HSC) occupants can be exposed to eccentric slam impacts of up to 20 g as a result of hull separation from the water during routine operation, subjecting the occupants to lateral, longitudinal, torsional, and vertical loading. These impacts have been the source of acute and chronic spinal injury for occupants. Development and validation of an accurate mathematical model of HSC suspension seating with the ability to optimize seat design parameters is required for efficient seat analysis, design, and tuning. A Newton-Euler approach was used to develop a general two-degree-of-freedom (DOF) spatial dynamic model of the seat-occupant system to accurately predict the occupant’s vertical response to 6DOF input base motion. The model was validated against uni-directional, single impact experimental data and available 6DOF HSC data and found to adequately predict the occupant’s vertical acceleration when using the stiffness and damping characteristics from component testing of the seat.


title: Fabrication of a Micro-hotplate for Application as an Infrared Emitter

abstract: The aim of this research is to design, fabricate and characterize a micro-hotplate which is suitable for application as an infrared source. For the heater material, Nichrome Ni-Cr (80/20) % an alloy of Ni (nickel) and Cr (chromium) is used. Nichrome exhibits high resistivity, low TCR and is resistant to natural processes of oxidation and corrosion; these qualities make nichrome a suitable material for a micro-hotplate. The heater resistance versus applied voltage is measured, where the slope of the curve is related to the TCR of the material. TCR measurements are carried out using a SPA with the sample on a temperature controlled chuck. NiCr thin film TCR is measured using a four-point probe technique from room temperature to 180℃. NiCr structures integrated on micro-hotplates are simultaneously heated and the corresponding resistance is measured using a source-meter that applies bias voltage and measures current. The MHP resistance is found to be stable after it has been passed through several conditioning steps.


title: Governmentality and Mining:  Analyzing the Environmental Impact Assessment for the Mary River Mine, Nunavut, Canada

abstract: The purpose of this research is to examine the thoroughness, objectivity, and inclusivity of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for the Mary River Iron Mine as a means to evaluate broader tensions expressed by the people of Nunavut that impact assessments are not addressing the concerns of northern communities. The EIA process in Nunavut is often conceptualized as a rigorous and unbiased tool that provides decision-makers with the information necessary to determine the likely impacts of a natural resources development project. This research reveals that the Mary River Project’s potential to negatively impact caribou and Inuit harvesting of caribou was not thoroughly assessed, nor was it meaningfully informed by those concerned about the mine (e.g. Inuit organizations and residents of potentially impacted communities). As currently practiced, EIA privileges the perspectives of the mining industry and reinforces narratives that mining is the key to Nunavut's socio-economic development.


title: Geomorphic origin of a lithalsa in the Great Slave Lowlands, Northwest Territories, Canada

abstract: Lithalsas, mineral-based permafrost mounds with segregated ice in their cores, are found in the Great Slave Lowlands, Northwest Territories. They are formed in (glacio)lacustrine deposits of Glacial Lake McConnell and ancestral Great Slave Lake left as water levels receded during the Holocene to the present level of Great Slave Lake. Ground ice conditions were examined in one 700-m long lithalsa adjacent to Highway 3, 30 km west of Yellowknife. Samples obtained to depths of 8.4 m from 17 boreholes revealed domed layers of silts, sands, and clays in the lithalsa, with related layers appearing horizontally beneath an adjacent peatland. Segregated ice lenses over 0.1 m thick occurred in clays below 4 m depth. δ18O values of lithalsa ice indicate modern water sources for the ground ice. The ages of organic material recovered from the lithalsa imply permafrost aggradation initiated growth of the feature within the last 700 to 400 years.